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Text in PDF /ÆíÁýÀÚ ÁÖHongshan Culture and the Proto-Altaic Speech Community of Xianbei and Tungus Conquerors¡¯ HomelandsWontack HongProfessor, Seoul University The Mongolian steppe was the home of the Xiong-nu, the ancestors of the Turks and possibly also of the Mongols. Fagan (2004: 201) notes: ¡°the grassland steppe acted like a pump, sucking in nomadic peoples during periods of higher rainfall, pushing them out to the margins and onto neighboring lands when drought came. During the ninth century BC, the climate of the steppe suddenly became colder and drier. ¡¦ The Mongolian steppe appears to have been the first region affected. ¡¦ In the eighth century BC, the drought on the steppe sent nomads pouring into China. They were repulsed, setting in motion a domino effect of population movements that brought some horse-using nomads to the Danube Basin and the eastern frontier of the Celtic world.¡±1 The Mongolian plateau is the eastern half of the great Eurasian steppes that extend from the borders of Manchuria to the plains of Hungary in rolling plains of grass punctuated by high mountains. There is a wide gap at the Imil River in Tarbagatai where the Altai Mountains and the Tien Shan ranges seem to meet, and the Turko-Mongol horsemen from the banks of the Orkhon, a tributary of Lake Baikal, could ride all the way through Kazakstan and the Russian steppes to reach the Hungarian plains. The Mongolian steppes average 1500 meters in elevation, with hot summers reaching 38¡Æ C and severe winters reaching -42¡Æ C. The Turkic steppes west of Balkhash lie at near sea level. The Gobi is a dry steppe, dividing Inner and Outer Mongolia. The grazing areas in the north are the regions drained by the tributaries of Lake Baikal and the upper Amur River as well as the slopes of the Altai Mountains. The Altai area reaches 40¡Æ C with 18 hours of sunlight in summer. The Transbaikalia involves a transition between the Mongolian steppe and the Siberian forest. Inner Mongolia bordering the Ordos Plains (enclosed by the great loop of Yellow River), Damaqun Mountains, and western Manchuria had also supported large numbers of nomads.2 The Mongols and Turks were sheep-eaters, raising goats, camels, cattle and horses as well. Manchuria is separated from the Mongolian steppe by the Greater Xing¡¯an Range in the north, and the Qilaotu and Yan Mountains to the south. Extending from the Shara-muren (Xar Moron) and Lao-ha basins to the West Liao River basin lay the Liao-xi steppe which is surrounded by the steep eastern slopes of Greater Xing¡¯an Range and the Nulu¡¯erhu Mountains. It was the home of Xianbei (Dong-hu) with a rather Mongolic culture. The Manchurian plain around the Song-hua River basin, flanked by the heavily forested areas in the east, extends from Siberia down to the mountainous Korean border area, and merges with the Liao River basin in the southwest. The so-called Eastern ¡°Barbarians¡± (Dong-yi) of central and eastern Manchuria were pig-eaters, and this fact, notes Janhunen (1996: 221), ¡°has given rise to the widespread, though linguistically untenable, ¡®etymology¡¯ explaining the ethnonym Tungus as a distortion of the Turkic word for ¡®pig¡¯ (tonguz).¡± The Neolithic Hong-shan Culture (c. 4000-3000 BC) was centered in the Liao-xi area.3 It was the product of people ethnically different from the populations of the Yang-shao complex around the central Yellow and Wei River valleys and the Long-shan complex at the Lower Yellow River basin. From the Hong-shan complex, various ritual artifacts including clay human figurines, jade animal carvings, and painted cylinders were recovered, with evidence of both plow agriculture and cattle, including sheep and pigs. Also excavated are pit-buildings with internal storage pits and hearths, red or grey pottery with sand temper (decorated with impressed Z patterns, comb patterns, and incised designs), painted pottery, pottery kilns, millet-reaping knives made of shell, and public architecture for community rituals and religious ceremonies, suggesting a complex society with social status differentiation. The Hong-shan sculptures are realistic, while sculptures elsewhere are often stylized. There is a clear continuity from the Hong-shan Culture towards the bronze-using Lower Xia-jia-dian Culture (c.2000-1500 BC) that still used pottery decorated with cord marks and incised patterns.4 Barnes (1993: 109) notes that the Fuhe, Hong-shan and Xin-le shared a textured-pottery tradition similar to the incised Chulmun of the Korean peninsula than to the Neolithic tradition of mainland China. Guo Da-shun (Nelson, 1995: 148-9) traces the culture of Old Yan (c.1027?-222) to the Lower Xia-jia-dian and ultimately to the Hong-shan culture. Guo believes that one branch of Lower Xia-jia-dian became the Yan, and another the Shang. According to Guo (ibid.: 179), a branch of the Lower Xia-jia-dian culture moved south and originated the Shang culture, ¡°while another remained in the same place for a long time, and became the antecedent of Yan.¡± Thus, Guo contends, ¡°it might be close to the original historical events if we consider Lower Xia-jia-dian culture as Pre-Yan culture.¡± According to Guo (Nelson, 1995: 178), there is a transitional relationship between the Yan culture and the Lower Xia-jia-dian culture: ¡°For instance, the animal mask designs on the painted pottery of Lower Xia-jia-dian, which appeared earlier and were well developed, are one of the antecedents of taotie [monster mask] designs in the Shang dynasty, and taotie designs continued in Yan until the end of the Warring States period, about 300 BCE.¡± Guo contends that ¡°the Yan culture of Early Zhou (1122-771 BC) has its own features.¡± Guo emphasizes the fact that the character for ¡°Yan¡± already existed in the inscriptions on oracle bones excavated at the Lower Xia-jia-dian, suggesting that the proto-Yan had existed in the Shang period (c.1766-1122 BC) and its cultural traditions ¡°were still kept in the Yan State culture of Western Zhou.¡±Nomadism emerged in the early first millennium BC. According to Barnes (1993: 157-8), the bronze artifact depicting a mounted horseman and running rabbit, which was excavated at the Upper Xia-jia-dian site, is the first evidence for horse-riding in East Asia, though the mounted warfare was not documented until 484 BC. Barnes seems to suggest that the nomadism which had developed about this time was the cause for such a great change between Lower Xia-jia-dian and Upper Xia-jia-dian. According to Barnes (1993: 153), the Upper Xia-jia-dian culture, located in the area of former Hong-shan culture (which had the merest hint of bronze), shared a distinctive bronze repertoire (such as animal motifs of Scythian affinities), with the nomads, suggesting cultural contacts across the Eurasian steppes. The Upper Xia-jia-dian tradition reached down into the Korean peninsula, giving rise to the Korean Bronze Age from about 700 BC. Barnes (1993: 153) contends that the state of Yan expanded into the lower Manchurian basin, creating a cultural synthesis from the various elements of nomadic, agricultural and state-level societies. The Upper Xia-jia-dian culture appeared with the broad-bladed bronze dagger which, unlike the Han Chinese daggers, had blade cast separately from the hilt. The broad-bladed bronze dagger in the Korean peninsula derived from the Upper Xia-jia-dian culture, and transformed into the slender ones, continuing into the time of the introduction of iron. Unlike the Lower Xia-jia-dian, the Upper Xia-jia-dian culture appeared with undecorated and plain red pottery that might reflect, as Guo contends, the influence of the Mumun pottery users along the both banks of the Liao river. 5 According to the Shi-ji, Wu-di of the Western Zhou (1122-771 BC) enfeoffed his kinfolk to preside over the area called Northern Yan (c.1027-25 BC), who allegedly became the founder of the Yan state. Shi-ji notes that there must have been another Yan (called Southern Yan) that did not belong to this enfeoffed territory. The Shi-ji also says that Wu-di enfeoffed a scion of the Shang loyal family named Ji-zi to preside over the Chosun area. According the Shi-ji, a Yan general attacked the Dong-hu (Eastern Hu, implying the Xianbei) and greatly expanded the Yan territory into the northeast sometime during 311-279 BC, establishing five provinces around the modern-day Luan River. Han Gao-zu appointed his long-time friend as the King of Yan, but the latter seeked refuge in the Xiong-nu who made him the King of Dong-hu.6 The fact that ¡°Dong-hu¡± apprears so frequently in the records on Yan may help solving the puzzle of so many Xianbei founders calling their states ¡°Yan,¡± and of Gong-sun Yuan (in 237), An Lu-shan (in 756), or Shi Si-ming (in 759), a sort of transgressors who did not want to identify themselves as Han Chinese, having styled themselves the King of Yan. According to Nelson (1995: 252, 14), bronze is found in the Dong-bei at a relatively early stage, and there is no reason to believe that bronze, especially in Liao-xi, is derived from the Yang-shao sites of the Zhong-yuan.. Nelson contends that ¡°the notion that the Dong-bei is just a pale and barbarian reflection of central China is erroneous, even at the time of the flowering of Shang,¡± and that ¡°the sites are different from the Central Plain to be sure, but they are not inferior in any way except for the lack of writing.¡± According to Janhunen (1996: 224), ¡°it is unlikely that the ancient kingdom of Yan would originally have contained any Sinitic elements¡± and ¡°ethnic foundation of the kingdom of Yan ¡¦ may have incorporated Pre-Proto-Mongolic elements in its ethnic composition.¡± The proto-Altaic speech community of Xianbei and Tungus, sharing the tradition of dolmens, comb-pattered pottery, and broad-bladed bronze daggers, may all be connected with the Hong-shan culture.7 If one says that the Han Chinese are the heirs of the Yang-shao culture, one indeed has to say that the Xianbei and Tungus are the heirs of the Hong-shan culture. The greater Manchurian ethnohistorical sphere of the Xianbei-Tungus, that encompasses the Korean peninsula and the Japanese islands, shares intimate histories with strong cultural affinity. Four out of the five conquest dynasties in China were of Xianbei-Tungus origin.BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 According to Lamb (1995: 150), the warmth of the most genial post-glacial times came to an end in China between about 1,100 and 800 BC, accompanied by droughts. Huntington¡¯s theory of ¡°climatic pulsation¡± (1907) proposes changes in climate as the cause of nomadic migrations, leading to conquests. As a dry cycle progressed and pastures dried up, nomads in search of new pastures clashed with other nomads, eventually erupting into aggressive actions against sedentary neighbors. See Lattimore (1961: 331). Toynbee (1947: Vol. I-VI, 170) contended that: ¡°there is a rhythmic alternation between periods of relative desiccation and humidity ¡¦ When desiccation reaches a degree at which the Steppe can no longer provide pasture for the quantity of cattle with which the Nomads have stocked it, the herdsmen ¡¦ invade the surrounding cultivated countries.¡±2 The ethno-genetic resemblance among the populations of Transbaikalia provenance may be explained by their tough life of hunting, fishing, nomadic stock-raising, and patch farming to survive on those harsh wind-swept forests and steppes, frozen in winter and scorched for a few weeks of summer. Even their horses of thick legs and dense coat reveal genetic resemblance: small and stocky with vigor and endurance.3 The northern boundary of the Hong-shan culture reaches beyond the Shara-murun River, extending into the Mongolian plateau. The eastern boundary is close to the lower reaches of the Liao River, the southern boundary extends to the coast of Parhae (Bohai) Bay, and the western section goes beyond the Yan Mountains. Typical sites are found most often along the Lao-ha River, along the valley of the Ying-jin River in a suburb of Chi-feng city îåÜç, and along the valley of Shara-murun River. There are no female figurines, no human sculptures of the entire body, and nothing comparable to the Hong-shan ceremonial centers in the Yang-shao sites. See Nelson (1995: 14, 25)4 Nelson (1995: 148-9) notes that the Lower Xia-jia-dian ù¾Ê«ïÁù»öµ is a local development, an outgrowth of the Hong-shan culture. It is followed after a pause by Upper Xia-jia-dian with some continuity between them.5 Another conspicuous artifact that connects the entire proto-Altaic speech community of Xianbei and Tungus is dolmen. Dolmens, which are numerous in the Liao-dong peninsula and known as far north as Jilin province, are considerably denser in the Korean peninsula than in Dong-bei. The northern-type dolmens seem to have emerged in the late Chulmun period, and the southern-type of dolmens in the late Bronze Age, though the distribution of the two types of dolmens overlaps considerably. The dolmen-building is thought to have been discontinued by 300 BC. See Nelson (1995: 16, 147) and Barnes (1993: 166-7).6 ÞÈÑÀ Ïéß²ä¨ÞÌ æØá¯Íëá¦Ê«ð¯ÞÌ ñ²ÙëèÝñýØþñÄ [1027 BC] Üæá¯ÍëåÚÝÁæØ áäõ÷èØ êóÑõæØ ÍºéöÝÁæØ ¡¦ Ðìî¤à÷èÝãÁ¡¦ í»àíì¤à¤ á¯Íëñ«ñý í»àíì¤ÔÔ ñ²Íëñ«ñý ¡¦ üøèÝì£ä¨öÒÒ´ æØÌ¸òÚ ó¦Øþë»ÏС¦ æØèÝØÌ ÞÕËÜסÔÔ ¡¦òÚÚûסÔÔ¡¦ ÷¼ÞÈÍëèØ¡¦ æØÚÞØÁ貉 Ò®ðÂðºòË ÐøÏ©Ë®ÏÐñýùÙ õÌêÓå°á³ ÞÈÑÀ ÏéÎúä¨ß² ùÛãáÖÔ綰æêîî ð¯ß²ä¨ß² ¡¦ÖÔ綰öÑæ¨ÍÔðÓ ¡¦ ùÓçéÒ´ ¡¦迺Ø¡ÖÔ綰êÓæØèÝ¡¦ÍºæØèÝíõ荼í­æâõóØÌî¤û× ¡¦ ÍÔðÓÝÚ ÖÔ綰âÄíâÐìñëØÌìýýÖÒ¿ ýÖÒ¿ì¤êÓÔÔû×ÖÔèÝ ¡¦ üøÌØñéë»Ò´ ÖÔ綰áÝöâñý ì¤ÔÔû×èÝ˽¡¦ êÓÔÔû×èÝÕÎ˽å¥ÞÈÑÀ Ïéð¯ìéÛÝä¨ ýÖÒ¿æêîî ð¯ çéä¨ ¡¦æØÝÁêóÔÔû×ߣëÔ ¡¦ ìúû×貉 ¡¦ æØêó úçíâòÚËÒ êÓòõåÚûס¦ Ïýì»ã©÷òñËÔÔû× ÔÔû×卻ô¶æ®×졦 æØæ²õéíþàò í»ðãåÕò¸åÑøÁ ¡¦ öÇ ¡¦ סà¤×¡ÔÔÏÛì»ËÞû×ÞÈÑÀ ÏéìéÛÝì£ä¨Îú ü§ãÖæêîî ð¯ë»ä¨Îú ÜýæØæ²ÚúÊåñýùÙ ¡¦ ÔÔÝÁÜ«û× ß¾ÍÛò¸×¡ÔÔ ò¢踔êÀìÑÚÅýñ ¡¦ ÝÁ鄰è¡ü¸Üýæ® ÔÔ綰çÛ貉[Øç]ðÈàØ¡¦ñý×× ÞÈÑÀ Ïé߲䍸¢ áäÚ°í­á¦Ê«ð¯ø¢ ѹí­íº ñÄöÑô«å¥ ¡¦ ñ² ÙëèÝÛéñÄкëÜ ¡¦Û¾ÙýÑ¹í­ ¡¦ ÜæÑ¹í­åÚðÈàØ ì»ÝÕãíå¥ý­ùÓßö Ïéø¢ä¨çé ÔÔì¨æêîî ð¯öÒä¨çé ùÛ ÖåèØ à®Ñ¹í­êÞáñëÜñýê¡ ù­ò¢ðÈàØ ¡¦Ðàã¿ø¢ðÉñýå³ ß²ÏÐò¤ êàßö ÔÔì¨îî ùÛîî êàÕÔèØ à®Ñ¹í­ñýý­ðÈàØý¦ ̸ñ²áñ[c. 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¼ÛÈ­°­À¯¿ªÀÇ Æò¿øÁö´ë´Â, µ¿ÂÊÀº ¿ïâÇÑ »ï¸²¿¡ ÀÇÇØ µÑ·¯½Î¿© ÀÖ°í, ½Ãº£¸®¾Æ ³¡ÀÚ¶ô¿¡¼­ ÇѹݵµÀÇ ¾Ð·Ï°­º¯±îÁö ³»·Á°¡´Â µµÁß, ³²¼­ÂÊÀÇ ¿äÇÏ(é¬ùÁ)À¯¿ª Æò¿ø°ú ¿¬°áµÇ¾î, ¼ÒÀ§ µ¿ºÏÆò¿øÀ» Çü¼ºÇÑ´Ù.
¸¸ÁÖÀÇ ÁߺΠÆò¾ß¿Í µ¿ºÎ »ê¸²Áö¿ª¿¡ »ì´ø À̸¥¹Ù µ¿ÀÌ(ÔÔì¨)Á·µéÀº µÅÁö°í±â¸¦ ¸Ô¾ú´Ù.
µ¹±È¸»·Î µÅÁö¸¦ ¡°Å뱸Á¶ó ºÎ¸¥´Ù´Â »ç½ÇÀ» ±Ù°Å·Î ¡°Åü±¸½º¡±ÀÇ ¾î¿øÀ» ãÀ¸·Á´Â »ç¶÷µéÀÌ ¸¹Àºµ¥, Janhunen(1996: 221)¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ÀÌ´Â ¾ð¾îÇÐÀû Ÿ´ç¼ºÀÌ °á¿©µÈ Á¢±Ù¹æ¹ýÀÌ´Ù.
½Å¼®±â È«»ê(ûõߣ)¹®È­(4000-3000 BC)ÀÇ À¯ÀûÀº ¿ä¼­Áö¿ª¿¡ ÁýÁߵǾî ÀÖ´Ù.
È«»ê¹®È­´Â ȲÇÏ(üÜùÁ)Áß·ù-À§¼ö(êÒâ©) À¯¿ªÀÇ ¾Ó¼Ò(äæáÒ)¹®È­¿Í, ȲÇÏÇÏ·ù À¯¿ªÀÇ ¿ë»ê(éÌߣ)¹®È­¸¦ ÀÏÀ¸Å² Á¾Á·µé°ú ÀüÇô ´Ù¸¥ »ç¶÷µéÀÌ ÀÌ·èÇÑ ¹®È­ÀÌ´Ù.
È«»ê¹®È­ÀÇ À¯¹°·Î´Â °¢Á¾ ÀÇ·Ê¿ë µµ±¸¸¦ Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ¿©, Á¡Åä·Î ºúÀº ÀÎüÁ¶Çü¹°, ¿ÁÀ¸·Î ¸¸µç µ¿¹°Çü»ó, ¿°·á¸¦ Ä¥ÇÑ ÅëÇü°ü(÷Õúþη) µîÀÌ ¹ß°ßµÇ¾ú°í, Àï±â¸¦ »ç¿ëÇÏ´Â ³ó°æÀüÅë°ú ¾ç°ú µÅÁö¸¦ Æ÷ÇÔÇØ °¡ÃàµéÀ» ±æ·¶´Ù´Â Áõ°Å°¡ ³ªÅ¸³­´Ù.
¶¥À» ÆÄ°í ÁöÀº ¼öÇ÷½Ä(âµúëãÒ) ¿òÁý°ú ÇÔ²² ÀúÀå°í, ºÒ ¶§´Â È­·Î µîµµ ¹ß°ßµÇ¸ç, ¡°Z¡±ÀÚ ¸ð¾çÀÇ ¹®¾ç, ºø»ì ¹®¾ç, Ä®³¡À¸·Î ÆÇ ¹®¾çÀ¸·Î Àå½ÄµÈ Àû»ö ȤÀº ȸ»öÀÇ »çÁú¼º(ÞÞòõàõ) Åä±â¿Í ä»öÅä±â ¹× Åä±âÁ¦Á¶¿ë °¡¸¶, ¼ö¼ö¸¦ ¼öÈ®ÇÒ ¶§ ¾²´Â Á¶°³·Î ¸¸µç Ä® µîÀÌ ¹ß°ßµÈ´Ù.
»Ó¸¸ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, Á¾±³Àǽİú Á¦»ç¸¦ ÇàÇß´ø °ø°ø°Ç¹° ÈçÀûÀÌ ¹ß°ßµÇ´Âµ¥, À̸¦ º¸¸é »çȸÀû °èÃþºÐÈ­°¡ ÀÌ·ç¾îÁø º¹ÀâÇÑ »çȸ¿´À½À» ÃßÁ¤ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù.
´Ù¸¥ Áö¿ª ¹®È­À¯ÀûÀÇ Á¶°¢Ç°µéÀ» º¸¸é ´ÙºÐÈ÷ Ãß»óÀûÀ¸·Î Á¤ÇüÈ­ µÇ¾úÁö¸¸, È«»ê¹®È­ÀÇ Á¶°¢Ç°µéÀº ¾ÆÁÖ ±¸Ã¼ÀûÀ̰í Çö½ÇÀû ¸ð¾çÀ» Çϰí ÀÖ´Ù.
Barnes(1993: 109)¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, »çÇØ(ÞÛú­), È«»ê, ½Å¶ô(ãæÕ¥)¹®È­ÀÇ »ê¹°ÀÎ Áñ¹®(ñîÚ£)Åä±â´Â ÇѹݵµÀÇ ºø»ì¹«´Ì Åä±â¿Í À¯»çÇϸç, Áß±¹º»ÅäÀÇ ½Å¼®±â Åä±âÇüÅ¿ʹ »ó´çÈ÷ °Å¸®°¡ ¸Ö´Ù°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù.
È«»ê¹®È­´Â Áñ¹®Åä±â¸¦ °è¼Ó »ç¿ëÇϸ鼭µµ µ¿À» »ç¿ëÇÏ´Â Çϰ¡Á¡(ù¾Ê«ïÁ) ÇÏÃþ(ù»öµ)¹®È­(2000-1500 BC)·Î À̾îÁø´Ù.
Áß±¹ °í°íÇÐȸ »óÀÓ ÀÌ»çÀåÀÎ °û´ë¼ø(άÓÞâ÷, Nelson, 1995: 178)Àº, ¿¬(æØ, 1027?-222 BC)³ª¶ó ¹®È­´Â ûµ¿±â¸¦ »ç¿ëÇÏ´ø Çϰ¡Á¡ ÇÏÃþ¹®È­¿Í ¿¬°áµÇ¾î ÀÖ´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇÑ´Ù.
Çϰ¡Á¡ ÇÏÃþÀÇ Ã¤»öÅä±â¿¡ ±×·ÁÁø µ¿¹° °¡¸é¹®¾çÀº, ±× ÃâÇö½ÃÁ¡ÀÌ ¸Å¿ì À̸£°í, »ó´çÈ÷ ¹ßÀüµÈ ÇüÅ¿´´Ù.
»ó(ßÂ)³ª¶ó µµÃ¶(饕餮-Àü¼³»óÀÇ Èä¾ÇÇϰí Ž½ÄÇÏ´Â ¾ß¼ö) ¹®¾çÀÇ ±Ù¿øÀÌ µÈ, ÀÌ ±«¹°¹®¾çÀÇ ÀüÅëÀº, Àü±¹½Ã´ë ¸»±âÀÎ ±â¿øÀü 300³â°æ±îÁö, ¿¬³ª¶ó¿¡ Á¸¼Ó µÇ¾ú¾ú´Ù°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù.
±×´Â ¶Ç, ¼­ÁÖ(à¤ñ², BC 1122-771)½Ã´ëÀÇ ¿¬³ª¶ó´Â, ÁÖ³ª¶ó¿Í´Â Å©°Ô ´Ù¸¥ ÀڽŸ¸ÀÇ µ¶Æ¯ÇÑ ¹®È­¸¦ º¸À¯Çϰí ÀÖ¾úÀ¸¸ç, Çϰ¡Á¡ ÇÏÃþ¹®È­ À¯Àû¿¡¼­ ÃâÅäµÈ ½ÅŹ(ãêöþ) °©°ñ(Ë£Íé)¿¡ ÀÌ¹Ì ¿¬(æØ)À̶ó´Â ±ÛÀÚ°¡ »õ°ÜÁ® ÀÖ¾ú´Ù´Â »ç½ÇÀ» °­Á¶Çϸ鼭, ¿ø½Ã ¿¬³ª¶ó´Â ÀÌ¹Ì »ó(ßÂ, BC. 1766-1122)³ª¶ó ½Ã´ë¿¡ Á¸ÀçÇØ ÀÖ¾ú°í, ±× ¹®È­Àû ÀüÅëÀÌ ¼­ÁÖ ½Ã´ëÀÇ ¿¬³ª¶ó¿¡ À̾îÁ³´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇÑ´Ù.
°û´ë¼øÀº ¿¾ ¿¬³ª¶ó ¹®È­ÀÇ ¿¬¿øÀ» Çϰ¡Á¡ ÇÏÃþ¹®È­¿¡¼­ ã¾ÒÀ¸¸ç, ±Ã±ØÀûÀ¸·Î´Â È«»ê¹®È­¿¡±îÁö °Å½½·¯ ¿Ã¶ó°¬´Ù.
±×¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé Çϰ¡Á¡ ÇÏÃþ¹®È­ÀÇ ÀϺδ ³²ÂÊÀ¸·Î À̵¿Çϸ鼭 »ó³ª¶ó ¹®È­¸¦ ÀÏÀ¸Ä×°í, ³ª¸ÓÁö´Â ±× ÀÚ¸®¿¡ ³²¾Æ ¿¬³ª¶ó ¹®È­ÀÇ ±Ù¿øÀÌ µÇ¾ú´Ù´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù.
(Nelson, 1995: 148-9, 179 ÂüÁ¶.) ±×´Â Çϰ¡Á¡ ÇÏÃþ¹®È­¸¦ ÁÖ³ª¶ó ¶§ ¿¬(æØ)¹®È­ÀÇ Àü ´Ü°è·Î ÀÌÇØÇÑ´Ù¸é, ½ÇÁ¦ ¿ª»çÀû »ç½Ç¿¡ °¡±î¿öÁö´Â °ÍÀ¸·Î »ý°¢ÇÑ´Ù.
Barnes(1993: 157-8)´Â, Çϰ¡Á¡ »óÃþÀ¯ÀûÁö¿¡¼­ ¹ß°ßµÈ, ¸»À» ź »ç¶÷°ú ´Þ¸®´Â Åä³¢¸¦ ±×¸° µ¿Á¦Ç°ÀÌ (ºñ·Ï ±â¸¶ÀüÅõ°¡ °ø½ÄÀûÀ¸·Î ±â·ÏµÈ °ÍÀº ±â¿øÀü 484³âÀÌÁö¸¸) µ¿¾Æ½Ã¾Æ¿¡¼­ÀÇ ±â¸¶ÀüÅë ÃâÇöÀ» Áõ¸íÇÏ´Â ÃÖÃÊÀÇ ¹°ÁõÀ̶ó°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù.
Barnes´Â Çϰ¡Á¡ »óÃþ¹®È­ ¹ß»ý½Ã±â¸¦ ÀüÈÄ·Î À¯¸ñ¹®È­°¡ µîÀåÇß°í, ÀÌ »õ·Î »ý±ä À¯¸ñ¹®È­ÀÇ ÀüÆÄ°¡ Çϰ¡Á¡ ÇÏÃþ¹®È­¸¦ »óÃþ¹®È­ ÇüÅ·ΠÀüȯ½ÃŰ´Â °è±â°¡ µÇ¾ú´Ù°í ÀÌÇØ¸¦ ÇÑ´Ù.
Barnes(1993: 153)´Â, È«»ê¹®È­ ½Ã´ë¿¡ ÀÌ¹Ì ±× ÈçÀûÀ» º¸ÀΠûµ¿±â´Â, Çϰ¡Á¡ »óÃþ¹®È­ ½Ã±â¿¡ ¿Í¼­ ¾ÆÁÖ º»°ÝÀûÀ¸·Î ´Ù¾çÇÑ Ç°¸ñµéÀ» º¸¿©ÁÖ°Ô µÈ´Ù´Â »ç½ÇÀ» °­Á¶ÇÑ´Ù.
¼­¾Æ½Ã¾ÆÀÇ ½ºÅ°Å¸ÀÌ À¯¹°°ú À¯»çÇÑ µ¿¹°¹®¾çÀÇ Ã»µ¿Á¦Ç°µéÀÌ ¹ß±¼µÇ´Â °ÍÀ¸·Î º¸¾Æ, Çϰ¡Á¡ »óÃþ¹®È­´Â À¯¶ó½Ã¾È ÃÊ¿øÁö´ë¿ÍÀÇ Á¢ÃËÀ» ÅëÇØ À¯¸ñ¹Îµé°ú ¹®È­Àû ÀüÅëÀ» °øÀ¯ÇÏ°Ô µÇ¾úÀ¸¸ç, ÀÌ »óÃþ¹®È­°¡ Çѹݵµ·Î Àü½ÂµÇ¸é¼­ ±â¿øÀü 700³â°æºÎÅÍ Çѹݵµ¿¡ º»°ÝÀû ûµ¿±â½Ã´ë¸¦ ¿¬ °ÍÀ¸·Î º¸¾Ò´Ù.
Barnes´Â ¶Ç, °í´ë ¿¬³ª¶ó°¡ ³²ºÎ¸¸ÁÖ ¿äÇÏ À¯¿ªÀ¸·Î ÁøÃâÇϸ鼭, À¯¸ñ¹ÎÀû »çȸ, Á¤Âø-³ó°æ »çȸ, ±¹°¡ ¼öÁØÀÇ »çȸ µî, ´Ù¾çÇÑ ¿ä¼ÒµéÀ» ¹®È­ÀûÀ¸·Î À¶ÇÕÇß´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇÑ´Ù.
Çϰ¡Á¡ »óÃþ À¯ÀûÁö¿¡¼­´Â ºñÆÄÇü µ¿°ËÀÌ ¹ß±¼µÇ´Âµ¥, À̵éÀº ÇÑÁ·µéÀÌ ¸¸µç µ¿°Ë°ú ´Þ¸®, Ä®³¯°ú ¼ÕÀâÀ̰¡ µû·Î ÁÖÁ¶µÇ¾ú´Ù.
ÇѹݵµÀÇ ºñÆÄÇü µ¿°ËÀº Çϰ¡Á¡ »óÃþ¹®È­¿¡¼­ À¯·¡Çϸç, ÈÄ¿¡ ¼¼Çüµ¿°ËÀ¸·Î ¹Ù²î¾î ö±â½Ã´ë ÃʱîÁö »ç¿ëµÈ´Ù.
Çϰ¡Á¡ »óÃþ¿¡¼­´Â ÇÏÃþ°ú ´Þ¸® ¹Î¹«´Ì Åä±â°¡ ¹ß°ßµÈ´Ù.
Çѹٵµ¸¦ ºñ·ÔÇÑ ¸¸ÁÖÀÇ ¿©Å¸ Áö¿ª¿¡¼­´Â ¹Î¹«´Ì Åä±â°¡ ´ë·« ±â¿øÀü 2000³â°æºÎÅÍ »ç¿ëÀÌ µÇ¾ú´Âµ¥, Çϰ¡Á¡ »óÃþ¹®È­´Â (°û´ë¼øÀÌ ÁÖÀåÇÏ´Â ¹Ù¿Í °°ÀÌ) ¿äÇÏ À¯¿ª¹æÇâÀ¸·ÎºÎÅÍ ÀÌµé ¹Î¹«´Ì Åä±â »ç¿ëÀÚµéÀÇ ¿µÇâÀ» ¹Þ°Ô µÈ °Í °°´Ù.
»ç±â(ÞÈÑÀ)¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¼­ÁÖÀÇ ¹«¿Õ(ÙëèÝ)Àº ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ Ä£Á·ÀÎ ¼Ò°ø¿¡°Ô ¡°ºÏ¿¬(ÝÁæØ)¡±À̶ó°í ºÎ¸£´Â Áö¿ªÀ» ºÀÇØÁÖ¾ú°í (c.1027-1025 BC), ±×°¡ ¿¬ ³ª¶óÀÇ ½ÃÁ¶°¡ µÇ´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù.
±×·±µ¥ °¢ÁÖ(ñÉ)¿¡´Â, ÀÌ ºÀÅä¿¡ ¼ÓÇÏÁö ¾Ê´Â ¶Ç ´Ù¸¥ ¿¬³ª¶ó, Áï, ¡°³²¿¬(ÑõæØ)¡±ÀÌ Á¸Àç ÇÒ °ÍÀ¸·Î ±â·ÏµÇ¾î ÀÖ´Ù.
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±â¿øÀü 311-279³â ±â°£ Áß, ¿¬Àº Áø°³(òÚËÒ)¸¦ ½ÃÄÑ µ¿È£(ÔÔû×)¸¦ °ø°ÝÇϰí, µ¿ºÏ¹æÀ¸·Î ¿µ¿ªÀ» ´ëÆø ³ÐÇô, ¿À´Ã³¯ÀÇ ³­ÇÏ(灤ùÁ) À¯¿ª¿¡ (¿äµ¿°ú ¿ä¼­¸¦ Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ´Â) 5°³ÀÇ ±ºÀ» ¼³Ä¡ÇÏ¿´´Ù.
ÇÑ °íÁ¶(r.206-195 BC)´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ¿À·£ Ä£±¸ÀÎ ³ë°üÀ» ¿¬¿ÕÀ¸·Î ºÀÇߴµ¥, ³ë°üÀº ÈÄ¿¡ Èä³ëÇÑÅ× µµÇǸ¦ Çß°í, Èä³ë´Â ±×¸¦ µ¿È£¿ÕÀ¸·Î ÀÓ¸íÇß´Ù.
¿¬³ª¶ó¿¡ °üÇÑ ±â·Ï¿¡ ¡°µ¿È£¡±°¡ ÀÚÁÖ µîÀåÇÑ´Ù´Â »ç½ÇÀº, Èļ¼¿¡ ¼±ºñÁ·µéÀÌ ³ª¶ó¸¦ ¼¼¿ï ¶§¸¶´Ù ±¹¸íÀ» ¡°¿¬¡±À̶ó ºÎ¸¥ »ç½Ç, ÇÑÁ·µéÇÑÅ×´Â ¸ð¹ÝÀ» ÇÑ ÀÚµé·Î º¸ÀÌ´Â °ø¼Õ¿¬ (237³â), ¾È·Ï»ê (756³â), »ç»ç¸í (759³â) µîÀÌ ÇÑÁ·°ú Â÷º°¼ºÀ» ³»¼¼¿ï ¶§ ÀڽŵéÀ» ¿¬¿ÕÀ̶ó°í ºÒ·¶´ø ÀÌÀ¯¸¦ ÀÌÇØÇϴµ¥ µµ¿òÀÌ µÉ ¼ö ÀÖÀ» °Í °°±âµµ ÇÏ´Ù.
Nelson(1995: 252, 14)Àº µ¿ºÏÁö¿ª¿¡¼­ ûµ¿ Á¦Ç°ÀÌ »ó´çÈ÷ ÀÏÂï ¹ß°ßµÇ´Âµ¥, ƯÈ÷ ¿ä¼­Áö¿ª¿¡¼­ ÃâÅäµÇ´Â ûµ¿ Á¦Ç°µéÀÌ Áß¿øÀÇ ¾Ó¼Ò¹®È­¿¡¼­ À¯·¡µÈ °ÍÀ¸·Î º¼ ÀÌÀ¯°¡ ÀüÇô ¾øÀ¸¸ç, »ó³ª¶ó°¡ ÇÑâ Àü¼º±â¸¦ ±¸°¡ÇÒ ¶§ Á¶Â÷µµ µ¿ºÏÁö¿ªÀÇ ¹®È­¸¦ Áß¿ø¹®È­ÀÇ ¾î¼³ÇÁ°í ¾ß¸¸ÀûÀΠǥÀý·Î °£ÁÖÇÏ´Â °ÍÀº Å« À߸øÀ̶ó°í ÁÖÀåÇÑ´Ù.
NelsonÀº È«»ê¹®È­´Â Áß¿øÀÇ ¹®È­¿Í ºÐ¸íÈ÷ ´Ù¸£¸ç, ´ÜÁö ±×µéÀÌ ¹®ÀÚ°¡ ¾ø¾ú´Ù´Â »ç½ÇÀ» Á¦¿ÜÇÏ°í¼­´Â Áß¿ø¹®È­¿¡ °áÄÚ µÚÁú °ÍÀÌ ¾ø´Ù°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù.
Janhunen(1996: 224)Àº °í´ëÀÇ ¿¬³ª¶ó´Â ¾Ö´çÃÊ Áß±¹ÀûÀÎ ¿ä¼Ò¸¦ °®°í ÀÖÁö ¾Ê¾ÒÀ¸¸ç, ¿ø½Ã Åõ¸£ÄÚ-¸ù°ñÁ·ÀÌ ¹Ù·Î ÃÊâ±âÀÇ ¿¬³ª¶ó¸¦ ±¸¼ºÇÑ Á¾Á·À̶ó°í »ý°¢ÇÑ´Ù.
¿ø½Ã ¾ËŸÀ̰èÅë ¾ð¾î¸¦ ±¸»çÇÏ´Â ¼±ºñ-Åü±¸½º ¿ª»ç-¹®È­ °øµ¿Ã¼´Â ¸ðµÎ°¡ È«»ê¹®È­¿Í ¿¬°áÀÌ µÇ¾îÀÖ´Ù.
µû¶ó¼­, ÇÑÁ·À» ¾Ó¼Ò¹®È­ÀÇ ÈÄ¿¹¶ó°í ¸» ÇÑ´Ù¸é, ¼±ºñ-Åü±¸½ºÁ·Àº È«»ê¹®È­ÀÇ ÈÄ¿¹¶ó°í ¸» ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖÀ» °ÍÀÌ´Ù.
Áß±¹´ë·úÀÇ ¾Ó¼Ò-¿ë»ê ¹®È­¿Í ÀüÇô ´Ù¸¥, ¿ä¼­ÀÇ ½Å¼®±â È«»ê¹®È­ À¯»êÀÇ »ó¼Ó-Àü½ÂÀÚ´Â ¸¸ÁÖ´ë·ú-Çѹݵµ-ÀϺ»¿­µµ Àüü¸¦ Æ÷°ýÇÏ´Â ¹ü¡°¼±ºñ-Åü±¸½º¡± °èÅëÀÇ (ºø»ì¹«´Ì-¹Î¹«´Ì Åä±â, °íÀε¹, ºñÆÄÇü µ¿°Ë µîÀÇ ¿¾ ÀüÅëÀ» °øÀ¯ÇÏ´Â) ¹®È­-¿ª»ç °øµ¿Ã¼ÀÌ´Ù.
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